TROPICAL SURVIVAL

Most people think of the tropics as a huge and forbidding
tropical rain forest through which every step taken must be
hacked out, and where every inch of the way is crawling
with danger. Actually, over half of the land in the tropics is
cultivated in some way.
A knowledge of field skills, the ability to improvise, and the
application of the principles of survival will increase the
prospects of survival. Do not be afraid of being alone in the
jungle; fear will lead to panic. Panic will lead to exhaustion
and decrease your chance of survival.
Everything in the jungle thrives, including disease germs
and parasites that breed at an alarming rate. Nature will

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provide water, food, and plenty of materials to build
shelters.
Indigenous peoples have lived for millennia by hunting
and gathering. However, it will take an outsider some
time to get used to the conditions and the nonstop activity
of tropical survival.
TROPICAL WEATHER
High temperatures, heavy rainfall, and oppressive humidity characterize
equatorial and subtropical regions, except at high altitudes. At low altitudes,
temperature variation is seldom less than 10 degrees C and is
often more than 35 degrees C. At altitudes over 1,500 meters, ice often
forms at night. The rain has a cooling effect, but when it stops, the
temperature soars.
Rainfall is heavy, often with thunder and lightning. Sudden rain beats
on the tree canopy, turning trickles into raging torrents and causing
rivers to rise. Just as suddenly, the rain stops. Violent storms may occur,
usually toward the end of the summer months.
Hurricanes, cyclones, and typhoons develop over the sea and rush inland,
causing tidal waves and devastation ashore. In choosing campsites, make sure
you are above any potential flooding. Prevailing winds vary between winter
and summer. The dry season has rain once a day and the monsoon has
continuous rain. In Southeast Asia, winds from the Indian Ocean bring the
monsoon, but it is dry when the wind blows from the landmass of China.
Tropical day and night are of equal length. Darkness falls quickly and
daybreak is just as sudden.
JUNGLE TYPES
There is no standard jungle. The tropical area may be any of the
following:
Rain forests.
Secondary jungles.
Semievergreen seasonal and monsoon forests.

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Scrub and thorn forests.
Savannas.
Saltwater swamps.
Freshwater swamps.
Tropical Rain Forests
The climate varies little in rain forests. You find these forests across
the equator in the Amazon and Congo basins, parts of Indonesia, and
several Pacific islands. Up to 3.5 meters of rain fall evenly throughout
the year. Temperatures range from about 32 degrees C in the day to
21 degrees C at night.
There are five layers of vegetation in this jungle (Figure
1). Where
untouched by man, jungle trees rise from buttress roots to heights of
60 meters. Below them, smaller trees produce a canopy so thick that
little light reaches the jungle floor. Seedlings struggle beneath them to
reach light, and masses of vines and lianas twine up to the sun. Ferns,
mosses, and herbaceous plants push through a thick carpet of leaves,
and a great variety of fungi grow on leaves and fallen tree trunks.
Because of the lack of light on the jungle floor, there is little undergrowth
to hamper movement, but dense growth limits visibility to about
50 meters. You can easily lose your sense of direction in this jungle, and
it is extremely hard for aircraft to see you.

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Secondary Jungles
Secondary jungle is very similar to rain forest. Prolific growth, where
sunlight penetrates to the jungle floor, typifies this type of forest. Such
growth happens mainly along river banks, on jungle fringes, and where
man has cleared rain forest. When abandoned, tangled masses of vegetation
quickly reclaim these cultivated areas. You can often find cultivated
food plants among this vegetation.
Semievergreen Seasonal and Monsoon Forests
The characteristics of the American and African semievergreen seasonal
forests correspond with those of the Asian monsoon forests. These characteristics
are—
Their trees fall into two stories of tree strata. Those in the upper
story average 18 to 24 meters; those in the lower story average
7 to 13 meters.
The diameter of the trees averages 0.5 meter.
Their leaves fall during a seasonal drought.
Except for the sage, nipa, and coconut palms, the same edible plants
grow in these areas as in the tropical rain forests.
You find these forests in portions of Columbia and Venezuela and the
Amazon basin in South America; in portions of southeast coastal Kenya,
Tanzania, and Mozambique in Africa; in Northeastern India, much of
Burma, Thailand, Indochina, Java, and parts of other Indonesian islands
in Asia.
Tropical Scrub and Thorn Forests
The chief characteristics of tropical scrub and thorn forests are—
There is a definite dry season.
Trees are leafless during the dry season.
The ground is bare except for a few tufted plants in bunches; grasses
are uncommon.
Plants with thorns predominate.
Fires occur frequently.
You find tropical scrub and thorn forests on the west coast of Mexico,
Yucatan peninsula, Venezuela, Brazil; on the northwest coast and
central parts of Africa; and in Asia, in Turkestan and India.

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Within the tropical scrub and thorn forest areas, you will find it hard to
obtain food plants during the dry season. During the rainy season, plants
are considerably more abundant.
Tropical Savannas
General characteristics of the savanna are—
It is found within the tropical zones in South America and Africa.
It looks like a broad, grassy meadow, with trees spaced at wide intervals.
It frequently has red soil.
It grows scattered trees that usually appear stunted and gnarled like
apple trees. Palms also occur on savannas.
You find savannas in parts of Venezuela, Brazil, and the Guianas
in South America. In Africa, you find them in the southern Sahara
(north-central Cameroon and Gabon and southern Sudan), Benin, Togo,
most of Nigeria, northeastern Zaire, northern Uganda, western Kenya,
part of Malawi, part of Tanzania, southern Zimbabwe, Mozambique,
and western Madagascar.
Saltwater Swamps
Saltwater swamps are common in coastal areas subject to tidal flooding.
Mangrove trees thrive in these swamps. Mangrove trees can reach
heights of 12 meters, and their tangled roots are an obstacle to movement.
Visibility in this type of swamp is poor, and movement is extremely
difficult. Sometimes, streams that you can raft form channels,
but you usually must travel on foot through this swamp.
You find saltwater swamps in West Africa, Madagascar, Malaysia, the
Pacific islands, Central and South America, and at the mouth of the
Ganges River in India. The swamps at the mouths of the Orinoco and
Amazon rivers and rivers of Guyana consist of mud and trees that offer
little shade. Tides in saltwater swamps can vary as much as 12 meters.
Everything in a saltwater swamp may appear hostile to you, from leeches
and insects to crocodiles and caimans. Avoid the dangerous animals in
this swamp.
Avoid this swamp altogether if you can. If there are water channels
through it, you may be able to use a raft to escape.

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Freshwater Swamps
You find freshwater swamps in low-lying inland areas. Their characteristics
are masses of thorny undergrowth, reeds, grasses, and occasional
short palms that reduce visibility and make travel difficult. There are
often islands that dot these swamps, allowing you to get out of the
water. Wildlife is abundant in these swamps.
TRAVEL THROUGH
JUNGLE AREAS
With practice, movement through thick undergrowth and jungle can be
done efficiently. Always wear long sleeves to avoid cuts and scratches.
To move easily, you must develop “jungle eye,” that is, you should not
concentrate on the pattern of bushes and trees to your immediate front.
You must focus on the jungle further out and find natural breaks in
the foliage. Look through the jungle, not at it. Stop and stoop down occasionally
to look along the jungle floor. This action may reveal game
trails that you can follow.
Stay alert and move slowly and steadily through dense forest or jungle.
Stop periodically to listen and take your bearings. Use a machete to
cut through dense vegetation, but do not cut unnecessarily or you
will quickly wear yourself out. If using a machete, stroke upward when
cutting vines to reduce noise because sound carries long distances in
the jungle. Use a stick to part the vegetation. Using a stick will also
help dislodge biting ants, spiders, or snakes. Do not grasp at brush
or vines when climbing slopes; they may have irritating spines or
sharp thorns.
Many jungle and forest animals follow game trails. These trails wind and
cross, but frequently lead to water or clearings. Use these trails if they
lead in your desired direction of travel.
In many countries, electric and telephone lines run for miles through
sparsely inhabited areas. Usually, the right-of-way is clear enough to
allow easy travel. When traveling along these lines, be careful as you
approach transformer and relay stations. In enemy territory, they may
be guarded.

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IMMEDIATE CONSIDERATIONS
There is less likelihood of your rescue from beneath a dense jungle
canopy than in other survival situations. You will probably have to travel
to reach safety.
If you are the victim of an aircraft crash, the most important items to take
with you from the crash site are a machete, a compass, a first aid kit, and a
parachute or other material for use as mosquito netting and shelter.
Take shelter from tropical rain, sun, and insects. Malaria-carrying mosquitoes
and other insects are immediate dangers, so protect yourself against bites.
Do not leave the crash area without carefully blazing or marking your
route. Use your compass. Know what direction you are taking.
In the tropics, even the smallest scratch can quickly become dangerously
infected. Promptly treat any wound, no matter how minor.
WATER PROCUREMENT
Even though water is abundant in most tropical environments, you may,
as a survivor, have trouble finding it. If you do find water, it may not be
safe to drink. Some of the many sources are vines, roots, palm trees, and
condensation. You can sometimes follow animals to water. Often you
can get nearly clear water from muddy streams or lakes by digging a

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hole in sandy soil about 1 meter from the bank. Water will seep into
the hole. You must purify any water obtained in this manner.
Animals as Signs of Water
Animals can often lead you to water. Most animals require water regularly.
Grazing animals such as deer, are usually never far from water and usually
drink at dawn and dusk. Converging game trails often lead to water. Carnivores
(meat eaters) are not reliable indicators of water. They get moisture
from the animals they eat and can go without water for long periods.
Birds can sometimes also lead you to water. Grain eaters, such as
finches and pigeons, are never far from water. They drink at dawn and
dusk. When they fly straight and low, they are heading for water. When
returning from water, they are full and will fly from tree to tree, resting
frequently. Do not rely on water birds to lead you to water. They fly
long distances without stopping. Hawks, eagles, and other birds of prey
get liquids from their victims; you cannot use them as a water indicator.
Insects can be good indicators of water, especially bees. Bees seldom
range more than 6 kilometers from their nests or hives. They usually will
have a water source in this range. Ants need water. A column of ants
marching up a tree is going to a small reservoir of trapped water. You
find such reservoirs even in arid areas. Most flies stay within 100 meters
of water, especially the European mason fly, easily recognized by its
iridescent green body.
Human tracks will usually lead to a well, bore hole, or soak. Scrub or
rocks may cover it to reduce evaporation. Replace the cover after use.
Water From Plants
Plants such as vines, roots, and palm trees are good sources of water.
Vines
Vines with rough bark and shoots about 5 centimeters thick can be a useful
source of water. You must learn by experience which are the water-bearing
vines, because not all have drinkable water. Some may even have a poisonous
sap. The poisonous ones yield a sticky, milky sap when cut. Nonpoisonous
vines will give a clear fluid. Some vines cause a skin irritation on contact;
therefore let the liquid drip into your mouth, rather than put your
mouth to the vine. Preferably, use some type of container. Use the procedure
described in Chapter 6 to obtain water from a vine.

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Roots
In Australia, the water tree, desert oak, and bloodwood have roots
near the surface. Pry these roots out of the ground and cut them into
30-centimeter lengths. Remove the bark and suck out the moisture, or
shave the root to a pulp and squeeze it over your mouth.
Palm Trees
The buri, coconut, and nipa palms all contain a sugary fluid that is very
good to drink. To obtain the liquid, bend a flowering stalk of one of
these palms downward, and cut off its tip. If you cut a thin slice off the
stalk every 12 hours, the flow will renew, making it possible to collect up
to a liter per day. Nipa palm shoots grow from the base, so that you can
work at ground level. On grown trees of other species, you may have to
climb them to reach a flowering stalk. Milk from coconuts has a large
water content, but may contain a strong laxative in ripe nuts. Drinking
too much of this milk may cause you to lose more fluid than you drink.
Water From Condensation
Often it requires too much effort to dig for roots containing water. It
may be easier to let a plant produce water for you in the form of condensation.
Tying a clear plastic bag around a green leafy branch will
cause water in the leaves to evaporate and condense in the bag. Placing
cut vegetation in a plastic bag will also produce condensation. This is a
solar still (see Chapter 6).
FOOD
Food is usually abundant in a tropical survival situation. To obtain animal
food, use the procedures outlined in Chapter 8.
In addition to animal food, you will have to supplement your diet with
edible plants. The best places to forage are the banks of streams and
rivers. Wherever the sun penetrates the jungle, there will be a mass of
vegetation, but river banks may be the most accessible areas.
If you are weak, do not expend energy climbing or felling a tree for
food. There are more easily obtained sources of food nearer the ground.
Do not pick more food than you need. Food spoils rapidly in tropical
conditions. Leave food on the growing plant until you need it, and eat
it fresh.

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There are an almost unlimited number of edible plants from which to
choose. Unless you can positively identify these plants, it may be safer at
first to begin with palms, bamboos, and common fruits. The list below
identifies some of the most common foods. Detailed descriptions and
photographs are at Appendix B.
POISONOUS PLANTS
The proportion of poisonous plants in tropical regions is no greater than
in any other area of the world. However, it may appear that most plants
in the tropics are poisonous because of the great density of plant growth
in some tropical areas. See Appendix C.

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