DANGEROUS ANIMALS

Animals rarely are as threatening to the survivor as the rest
of the environment. Common sense tells the survivor to
avoid encounters with lions, bears, and other large or dangerous
animals. You should also avoid large grazing animals
with horns, hooves, and great weight. Your actions
may prevent unexpected meetings. Move carefully through
their environment. Do not attract large predators by leaving
food lying around your camp. Carefully survey the scene
before entering water or forests.
Smaller animals actually present more of a threat to the
survivor than large animals. To compensate for their size,
nature has given many small animals weapons such as
fangs and stingers to defend themselves. Each year, a few
people are bitten by sharks, mauled by alligators, and

1
attacked by bears. Most of these incidents were in some
way the victim’s fault. However, each year more victims die
from bites by relatively small venomous snakes than by
large dangerous animals. Even more victims die from allergic
reactions to bee stings. For this reason, we will pay more
attention to smaller and potentially more dangerous creatures.
These are the animals you are more likely to meet as
you unwittingly move into their habitat, or they slip into
your environment unnoticed.
Keeping a level head and an awareness of your surroundings
will keep you alive if you use a few simple safety proce -
dures. Do not let curiosity and carelessness kill or injure
you.
INSECTS
AND ARACHNIDS
You recognize and identify insects, except centipedes and millipedes,
by their six legs while arachnids have eight. All these small creatures
become pests when they bite, sting, or irritate you.
Although their venom can be quite painful, bee, wasp, and hornet stings
rarely kill a survivor unless he is allergic to that particular toxin. Even
the most dangerous spiders rarely kill, and the effects of tick-borne
diseases are very slow-acting. However, in all cases, avoidance is the best
defense. In environments known to have spiders and scorpions, check
your footgear and clothing every morning. Also check your bedding
and shelter for them. Use care when turning over rocks and logs. See
Appendix D for examples of dangerous insects and arachnids.
Scorpions
You find scorpions (Buthotus species) in deserts, jungles, and forests of
tropical, subtropical, and warm temperate areas of the world. They are
mostly nocturnal in habit. You can find desert scorpions from below sea
level in Death Valley to elevations as high as 3,600 meters in the Andes.
Typically brown or black in moist areas, they may be yellow or light

2
green in the desert. Their average size is about 2.5 centimeters. However,
there are 20-centimeter giants in the jungles of Central America,
New Guinea, and southern Africa. Fatalities from scorpion stings are
rare, but they can occur in children, the elderly, and ill persons. Scorpions
resemble small lobsters with raised, jointed tails bearing a stinger
in the tip. Nature mimics the scorpions with whip scorpions or vinegarroons.
These are harmless and have a tail like a wire or whip, rather
than the jointed tail and stinger of true scorpions.
Spiders
You recognize the brown recluse or fiddleback spider of North America
(Loxosceles reclusa) by a prominent violin-shaped light spot on the
back of its body. As its name suggests, this spider likes to hide in dark
places. Though rarely fatal, its bite causes excessive tissue degeneration
around the wound and can even lead to amputation of the digits if
left untreated.
You find members of the widow family (Latrodectus species) worldwide,
though the black widow of North America is perhaps the most wellknown.
Found in warmer areas of the world, the widows are small, dark
spiders with often hourglass-shaped white, red, or orange spots on their
abdomens.
Funnelwebs (Atrax species) are large, gray or brown Australian spiders.
Chunky, with short legs, they are able to move easily up and down the
cone-shaped webs from which they get their name. The local populace
considers them deadly. Avoid them as they move about, usually at night,
in search of prey. Symptoms of their bite are similar to those of the
widow’s—severe pain accompanied by sweating and shivering, weakness,
and disabling episodes that can last a week.
Tarantulas are large, hairy spiders (Theraphosidae and Lycosa species)
best known because they are often sold in pet stores. There is one
species in Europe, but most come from tropical America. Some South
American species do inject a dangerous toxin, but most simply produce
a painful bite. Some tarantulas can be as large as a dinner plate. They
all have large fangs for capturing food such as birds, mice, and lizards.
If bitten by a tarantula, pain and bleeding are certain, and infection
is likely.

3
Centipedes and Millipedes
Centipedes and millipedes are mostly small and harmless, although
some tropical and desert species may reach 25 centimeters. A few varieties
of centipedes have a poisonous bite, but infection is the greatest
danger, as their sharp claws dig in and puncture the skin. To prevent
skin punctures, brush them off in the direction they are traveling, if
you find them crawling on your skin.
Bees, Wasps, and Hornets
We are all familiar with bees, wasps, and hornets. They come in many
varieties and have a wide diversity of habits and habitats. You recognize
bees by their hairy and usually thick body, while the wasps, hornets,
and yellow jackets have more slender, nearly hairless, bodies. Some
bees, such as honeybees, live in colonies. They may be either domesticated
or living wild in caves or hollow trees. You may find other bees,
such as carpenter bees, in individual nest holes in wood, or in the
ground, like bumblebees. The main danger from bees is their barbed
stinger located on their abdomens. When the bee stings you, it rips its
stinger out of its abdomen along with the venom sac, and the bee dies.
Except for killer bees, most bees tend to be more docile than wasps,
hornets, and yellow jackets that have smooth stingers and are capable
of repeated attacks.
Avoidance is the best tactic for self-protection. Watch out for flowers
or fruit where bees may be feeding. Be careful of meat-eating yellow
jackets when cleaning fish or game. The average person has a relatively
minor and temporary reaction to bee stings and recovers in a couple
of hours when the pain and headache go away. Those who are allergic
to bee venom have severe reactions including anaphylactic shock,
coma, and death. If antihistamine medicine is not available and you
cannot find a substitute, an allergy sufferer in a survival situation is
in grave danger.
Ticks
Ticks are common in the tropics and temperate regions. They are familiar
to most of us. Ticks are small round arachnids with eight legs
and can have either a soft or hard body. Ticks require a blood host
to survive and reproduce. This makes them dangerous because they
spread diseases like Lyme disease, Rocky Mountain spotted fever,

4
encephalitis, and others that can ultimately be disabling or fatal. There
is little you can do to treat these diseases once contracted, but time
is your ally since they are slow-acting ailments. According to most authorities,
it takes at least 6 hours of attachment to the host for the tick
to transmit the disease organisms. Thus, you have time to thoroughly
inspect your body for their presence. Beware of ticks when passing
through the thick vegetation they cling to, when cleaning host animals
for food, and when gathering natural materials to construct a shelter.
Always use insect repellents, if possible.
LEECHES
Leeches are blood-sucking creatures with a wormlike appearance. You
find them in the tropics and in temperate zones. You will certainly
encounter them when swimming in infested waters or making expedient
water crossings. You can find them when passing through swampy, tropical
vegetation and bogs. You can also find them while cleaning food
animals, such as turtles, found in fresh water. Leeches can crawl into
small openings; therefore, avoid camping in their habitats when possible.
Keep your trousers tucked in your boots. Check yourself frequently for
leeches. Swallowed or eaten, leeches can be a great hazard. It is therefore
essential to treat water from questionable sources by boiling or
using chemical water treatments. Survivors have developed severe
infections from wounds inside the throat or nose when sores from
swallowed leeches became infected.
BATS
Despite the legends, bats (Desmodus species) are a relatively small hazard
to the survivor. There are many bat varieties worldwide, but you find
the true vampire bats only in Central and South America. They are
small, agile fliers that land on their sleeping victims, mostly cows and
horses, to lap a blood meal after biting their victim. Their saliva contains
an anticoagulant that keeps the blood slowly flowing while they feed.
Only a small percentage of these bats actually carry rabies; however,
avoid any sick or injured bat. They can carry other diseases and infections
and will bite readily when handled. Taking shelter in a cave occupied
by bats, however, presents the much greater hazard of inhaling
powdered bat dung, or guano. Bat dung carries many organisms that

5
can cause diseases. Eating thoroughly cooked flying foxes or other bats
presents no danger from rabies and other diseases, but again, the
emphasis is on thorough cooking.
POISONOUS SNAKES
There are no infallible rules for expedient identification of poisonous
snakes in the field, because the guidelines all require close observation
or manipulation of the snake’s body. The best strategy is to leave all
snakes alone. Where snakes are plentiful and poisonous species are
present, the risk of their bites negates their food value. Apply the
following safety rules when traveling in areas where there are poisonous
snakes:
Walk carefully and watch where you step. Step onto logs rather than
over them before looking and moving on.
Look closely when picking fruit or moving around water.
Do not tease, molest, or harass snakes. Snakes cannot close their
eyes. Therefore, you cannot tell if they are asleep. Some snakes, such
as mambas, cobras, and bushmasters, will attack aggressively when
cornered or guarding a nest.
Use sticks to turn logs and rocks.
Wear proper footgear, particularly at night.
Carefully check bedding, shelter, and clothing.
Be calm when you encounter serpents. Snakes cannot hear and you
can occasionally surprise them when they are sleeping or sunning.
Normally, they will flee if given the opportunity.
Use extreme care if you must kill snakes for food or safety. Although
it is not common, warm, sleeping human bodies occasionally attract
snakes.
See Appendix E for detailed descriptions of the snakes listed on the
following pages.
Snake-Free Areas
The polar regions are free of snakes due to their inhospitable environments.
Other areas considered to be free of poisonous snakes are
New Zealand, Cuba, Haiti, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Ireland, Polynesia,
and Hawaii.

6
American Copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix)
Bushmaster (Lachesis mutus)
Coral snake (Micrurus fulvius)
Cottonmouth (Agkistrodon piscivorus)
Fer-de-lance (Bothrops atrox)
Rattlesnake (Crotalus species)
Common adder (Vipers berus)
Pallas' viper (Agkistrodon halys)
Boomslang (Dispholidus typus)
Cobra (Naja species)
Gaboon viper (Bitis gabonica)
Green tree pit viper (Trimeresurus gramineus)
Habu pit viper (Trimeresurus flavoviridis)
Krait (Bungarus caeruleus)
Malayan pit viper (Callaselasma rhodostoma)
Mamba (Dendraspis species)
Puff adder (Bitis arietans)
Rhinoceros viper (Bitis nasicornis)
Russell‘s viper (Vipera russellii)
Sand viper (Cerastes vipera)
Saw-scaled viper (Echis carinatus)
Wagler’s pit viper (Trimeresurus wagleri)

7
Death adder (Acanthophis antarcticus)
Taipan (Oxyuranus scutellatus)
Tiger snake (Notechis scutatus)
Yellow-bellied sea snake (Pelamis platurus)
DANGEROUS LIZARDS
The Gila monster and the Mexican beaded lizard are dangerous and
poisonous lizards.
Gila Monster
The Gila monster (Heloderma suspectrum) of the American southwest,
including Mexico, is a large lizard with dark, highly textured skin marked
by pinkish mottling. It averages 35 to 45 centimeters in length and has
a thick, stumpy tail. Unlikely to bite unless molested, it has a poisonous
bite.
Mexican Beaded Lizard
The Mexican beaded lizard (Heloderma horridum) resembles its relative,
the Gila monster. It has more uniform spots rather than bands of color
(the Gila monster). It also is poisonous and has a docile nature. You find
it from Mexico to Central America.
Komodo Dragon
This giant lizard (Varanus komodoensis) grows to more than 3 meters in
length and can be dangerous if you try to capture it. This Indonesian
lizard can weigh more than 135 kilograms.
DANGERS IN RIVERS
Common sense will tell you to avoid confrontations with hippopotami,
alligators, crocodiles, and other large river creatures. There are, however,
a few smaller river creatures with which you should be cautious.

8
Electric Eel
Electric eels (Electrophorus electricus) may reach 2 meters in length
and 20 centimeters in diameter. Avoid them. They are capable of
generating up to 500 volts of electricity in certain organs in their
body. They use this shock to stun prey and enemies. Normally, you
find these eels in the Orinoco and Amazon River systems in South
America. They seem to prefer shallow waters that are more highly
oxygenated and provide more food. They are bulkier than our native
eels. Their upper body is dark gray or black, with a lighter-colored
underbelly.
Piranha
Piranhas (Serrasalmo species) are another hazard of the Orinoco and
Amazon River systems, as well as the Paraguay River Basin, where they
are native. These fish vary greatly in size and coloration, but usually
have a combination of orange undersides and dark tops. They have
white, razor-sharp teeth that are clearly visible. They may be as long as
50 centimeters. Use great care when crossing waters where they live.
Blood attracts them. They are most dangerous in shallow waters during
the dry season.
Turtle
Be careful when handling and capturing large freshwater turtles, such as
the snapping turtles and soft-shelled turtles of North America and the
matamata and other turtles of South America. All of these turtles will
bite in self-defense and can amputate fingers and toes.
Platypus
The platypus or duckbill (Ornithorhyncus anatinus) is the only member
of its family and is easily recognized. It has a long body covered with
grayish, short hair, a tail like a beaver, and a bill like a duck. Growing
up to 60 centimeters in length, it may appear to be a good food source,
but this egg-laying mammal, the only one in the world, is very dangerous.
The male has a poisonous spur on each hind foot that can inflict
intensely painful wounds. You find the platypus only in Australia, mainly
along mud banks on waterways.

9
DANGERS IN BAYS
AND ESTUARIES
In areas where seas and rivers come together, there are dangers associated
with both fresh and salt water. In shallow salt waters, there are
many creatures that can inflict pain and cause infection to develop.
Stepping on sea urchins, for example, can produce pain and infection.
When moving about in shallow water, wear some form of footgear
and shuffle your feet along the bottom, rather than picking up your
feet and stepping.
Stingrays (Dasyatidae species) are a real hazard in shallow waters,
especially tropical waters. The type of bottom appears to be irrelevant.
There is a great variance between species, but all have a sharp spike
in their tail that may be venomous and can cause extremely painful
wounds if stepped on. All rays have a typical shape that resembles a
kite. You find them along the coasts of the Americas, Africa, and
Australasia.
SALTWATER DANGERS
There are several fish that you should not handle, touch, or contact.
There are others that you should not eat.
Fish Dangerous to Handle,
Touch, or Contact
There are several fish you should not handle, touch, or contact that are
identified below.
Shark
Sharks are the most feared animal in the sea. Usually, shark attacks cannot
be avoided and are considered accidents. You, as a survivor, should
take every precaution to avoid any contact with sharks. There are many
shark species, but in general, dangerous sharks have wide mouths and
visible teeth, while relatively harmless ones have small mouths on the
underside of their heads. However, any shark can inflict painful and
often fatal injuries, either through bites or through abrasions from their
rough skin.

10
Rabbitfish
Rabbitfish or spinefoot (Siganidae species) occur mainly on coral reefs in
the Indian and Pacific oceans. They have very sharp, possibly venomous
spines in their fins. Handle them with care, if at all. This fish, like many
others of the dangerous fish in this section, is considered edible by native
peoples where the fish are found, but deaths occur from careless
handling. Seek other nonpoisonous fish to eat if at all possible.
Tang
Tang or surgeonfish (Acanthuridae species) average 20 to 25 centimeters
in length and often are beautifully colored. They are called surgeonfish
because of the scalpellike spines located in the tail. The wounds inflicted
by these spines can bring about death through infection, envenomation,
and loss of blood, which may incidentally attract sharks.
Toadfish
Toadfish (Batrachoididae species) occur in tropical waters off the Gulf
Coast of the United States and along both coasts of Central and South
America. These dully colored fish average 18 to 25 centimeters in
length. They typically bury themselves in the sand to await fish and
other prey. They have sharp, very toxic spines along their backs.
Scorpion Fish
Poisonous scorpion fish or zebra fish (Scorpaenidae species) are mostly
around reefs in the tropical Indian and Pacific oceans and occasionally in
the Mediterranean and Aegean seas. They average 30 to 75 centimeters
in length. Their coloration is highly variable, from reddish brown to
almost purple or brownish yellow. They have long, wavy fins and spines
and their sting is intensively painful. Less poisonous relatives live in the
Atlantic Ocean.
Stonefish
Stonefish (Synanceja species) are in the Pacific and Indian oceans. They
can inject a painful venom from their dorsal spines when stepped on or
handled carelessly. They are almost impossible to see because of their
lumpy shape and drab colors. They range in size up to 40 centimeters.
Weever Fish
Weever fish (Trachinidae species) average 30 centimeters long. They are
hard to see as they lie buried in the sand off the coasts of Europe,

11
Africa, and the Mediterranean. Their color is usually a dull brown. They
have venomous spines on the back and gills.
See Appendix F for more details on these venomous fish.
Animals and Fish Poisonous
to Eat
Survival manuals often mention that the livers of polar bears are
toxic due to their high concentrations of vitamin A. For this reason,
we mention the chance of death after eating this organ. Another
toxic meat is the flesh of the hawksbill turtle. You recognize them by
their down-turned bill and yellow polka dots on their neck and front
flippers. They weigh more than 275 kilograms and are unlikely to be
captured.
Many fish living in reefs near shore, or in lagoons and estuaries, are
poisonous to eat, though some are only seasonally dangerous. The
majority are tropical fish; however, be wary of eating any unidentifiable
fish wherever you are. Some predatory fish, such as barracuda and snapper,
may become toxic if the fish they feed on in shallow waters are poisonous.
The most poisonous types appear to have parrotlike beaks and
hard shell-like skins with spines and often can inflate their bodies like
balloons. However, at certain times of the year, indigenous populations
consider the puffer a delicacy.
Blowfish
Blowfish or puffer (Tetraodontidae species) are more tolerant of cold
water. You find them along tropical and temperate coasts worldwide,
even in some of the rivers of Southeast Asia and Africa. Stout-bodied
and round, many of these fish have short spines and can inflate themselves
into a ball when alarmed or agitated. Their blood, liver, and
gonads are so toxic that as little as 28 milligrams (1 ounce) can be
fatal. These fish vary in color and size, growing up to 75 centimeters
in length.
Triggerfish
The triggerfish (Balistidae species) occur in great variety, mostly in tropical
seas. They are deep-bodied and compressed, resembling a seagoing
pancake up to 60 centimeters in length, with large and sharp dorsal
spines. Avoid them all, as many have poisonous flesh.

12
Barracuda
Although most people avoid them because of their ferocity, they occasionally
eat barracuda (Sphyraena barracuda). These predators of mostly
tropical seas can reach almost 1.5 meters in length and have attacked
humans without provocation. They occasionally carry the poison ciguatera
in their flesh, making them deadly if consumed.
See Appendix F for more details on toxic fish and toxic mollusks.
Other Dangerous
Sea Creatures
The blue-ringed octopus, jellyfish, and the cone and auger shells are
other dangerous sea creatures.
Blue-Ringed Octopus
Most octopi are excellent when properly prepared. However, the blueringed
octopus (Hapalochlaena lunulata) can inflict a deadly bite from its
parrotlike beak. Fortunately, it is restricted to the Great Barrier Reef
of Australia and is very small. It is easily recognized by its grayish white
overall color and iridescent blue rings. Authorities warn that all tropical
octopus species should be treated with caution, since many have poisonous
bites, although the flesh is edible.
Jellyfish
Jellyfish-related deaths are rare, but the sting they inflict is extremely
painful. The Portuguese man-of-war resembles a large pink or purple
balloon floating on the sea. It has poisonous tentacles hanging up to
12 meters below its body. The huge tentacles are actually colonies of
stinging cells. Most known deaths from jellyfish are attributed to the
man-of-war. Other jellyfish can inflict very painful stings as well. Avoid
the long tentacles of any jellyfish, even those washed up on the beach
and apparently dead.
Cone Shell
The subtropical and tropical cone shells (Conidae species) have a venomous
harpoonlike barb. All are cone-shaped and have a fine netlike
pattern on the shell. A membrane may possibly obscure this coloration.
There are some very poisonous cone shells, even some lethal ones in
the Indian and Pacific oceans. Avoid any shell shaped like an ice cream
cone.

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Auger Shell
The auger shell or terebra (Terebridae species) are much longer and thinner
than the cone shells, but can be nearly as deadly as the cone shells.
They are found in temperate and tropical seas. Those in the Indian and
Pacific oceans have a more toxic venom in their stinging barb. Do not
eat these snails, as their flesh may be poisonous.

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